Cultural Environment

Cultural resources in Yosemite National Park and the El Portal Administrative Site include prehistoric and historic archaeological sites, historic sites and structures, cultural landscapes, and traditional cultural properties or ethnographic resources (both natural and cultural resources) that are important to the continuing culture and traditions of park-associated American Indian people. Some of the cultural resources are housed in museum collections. These resources reflect early settlement, use, and management of the lands by indigenous people; westward expansion of Euro-American people (as well as Asian and other non-European people) and their conflict with American Indian groups; resource extraction such as logging, mining, and herding; early tourism; early environmental conservation efforts; development of water resources; and park planning, design, and land management—they are the physical evidence of human presence spanning the majority of the Holocene.

While Yosemite National Park holds important museum collections, these are not discussed in depth in this Draft Yosemite Fire Management Plan/EIS because they are not generally affected or threatened by wildland or prescribed fire management practices. However, actions associated with implementation of elements of the Draft Yosemite Fire Management Plan/EIS alternatives could indirectly affect the museum collections. Such changes would typically involve additions to the collections generated from archaeological data recovery conducted as mitigation for direct site impacts. These changes would be minimal and would require additional museum storage space and ongoing collections maintenance and management. Specific facilities designed for museum collections preservation and protection, and are addressed in other documents such as the Structural Fire Management Plan and the Collections Management Plan.

The following discussion of cultural resources is based on general overview studies and specific cultural resource research (Hull and Moratto 1999; NPS 1987a, 1990b, n.d., 1998c, 2000d, 2001b). It is important to note the limitations inherent in the information about cultural resources. Yosemite National Park lacks three key overview studies: an overview and assessment of ethnographic resources, cultural affiliation studies, and an administrative history. Yosemite is also lacking a systematic inventory of ethnographic resources, although Bibby (1994) conducted an evaluation of ethnographic resources in Yosemite Valley. Some limited, anecdotal information regarding ethnographic resources is available for other park areas. Only about 8% of the park has been inventoried for archaeological sites; within this area 1,375 sites have been recorded. While most historical eras and events are documented, the location, extent, condition, and significance of many of the physical resources reflecting these episodes are unknown. The exception is part of the park’s wilderness area, where approximately 2,000 historic resources have been recorded. The documentation available for known resources typically lacks data necessary to determine whether there is potential for fire-related impacts to occur.

Of the known physical resources, many of the historic structures are either listed or considered eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. Few archaeological sites have been individually nominated for listing in the National Register, but many areas with site concentrations have been listed or determined eligible for listing.

The build-up of fuels from years of fire suppression in some areas of the park puts many cultural resources at risk from damaging effects of high-intensity fire. However, it is likely that, except for the archaeological resources from the late 1800s and early 1900s, archaeological sites have been burned over in the past. Therefore, the susceptibility of these sites to fire depends on fuel accumulation near each site and the types of resources present that might be affected by fire. Many of the park’s historical resources, however, may not have been exposed to fire. Wooden buildings, blazed trees, and other flammable historical resources are the most susceptible to damage from fire and require the most intensive management during wildland fires. To facilitate decision making during a fire event, a set of digital cultural resource maps has been developed and incorporated into the park’s geographic information system (GIS). This information is currently available for prescribed fire planning and to incident commanders during wildland fire situations. Details about the types of resources and effects of fire are presented in Chapter 4, Environmental Consequences. The remainder of this chapter provides a framework for discussing the specific cultural resources in Yosemite that require special consideration in fire management.

Human Occupation

American Indian Occupation

Preliminary archaeological evidence indicates people may have been living in the area now comprising Yosemite National Park and the El Portal Administrative Site as long as 9,500 years ago. The park area contains thousands of archaeological sites, evincing technological change through time, a highly developed trade network, at least one population replacement, and significant environmental manipulation through the use of fire. The arrival of the Spanish in California in the late-18th century brought profound changes. As a result of Spanish colonization and continuing after the independence of Mexico, which included the Territory of California, American Indians from the foothill and coastal regions migrated to the Sierra Nevada—bringing with them European goods and diseases and aligning themselves with tribes already living there.

When Euro-Americans first entered Yosemite Valley in 1851, American Indians living there were most likely a mixture of Southern Sierra Miwok, Mono Lake Paiute, and Central Sierra Miwok, as well as former Mission Indians likely from Yokuts, Plains Miwok, and Ohlonean groups. The upland areas of the Merced River drainage were frequented by Southern Sierra Miwok, possibly Mono Lake Paiute, and at least traversed by Western Monos and possibly Chukchansi Yokuts. El Portal was inhabited by Southern Sierra Miwok people. The Wawona area was home to Southern Sierra Miwok people, and perhaps some Western Mono and Chukchansi Yokuts. The Tuolumne watershed area was home to Central Sierra Miwok, Southern Sierra Miwok, Mono Lake Paiute, and Bridgeport Paiute.

Euro-American Occupation

Euro-American use of the Yosemite area has been relatively short in the span of human occupation. During this brief time, many large-scale changes have occurred, which have dramatically altered the landscape. While Euro-Americans passed through the Yosemite area beginning in the 1830s, it was not until the mid-1850s and 1860s that the natural scenery of Yosemite Valley was brought to America’s attention. By 1860, entrepreneurs constructed hotels, trails, and homes; filed claims and homesteads; planted orchards and field; and built cabins in what would become Yosemite National Park. In 1864, President Abraham Lincoln and the US Congress set aside the Big Tree Grove (Mariposa Grove) and Yosemite Valley, granting them to the state of California as a public park to preserve the monumental scenic qualities of the area.

By the 1870s and 1880s roads were established to bring tourists to Yosemite Valley. During this period, settlers and entrepreneurs began extracting resources such as barium, silver, gold, while they grazed livestock and logged trees in the Yosemite Sierra. Reaction to this “exploitation” preceded the early conservation movement and lead to the congressional act establishing Yosemite National Park in 1890. The logging industry profoundly changed the forest landscapes in and adjacent to the park. Beginning in the early 1900s, the Madera Sugar Pine Company extracted timber in the Southern portion of the park. By 1912, the Yosemite Lumber Company was surveying railroad routes to the Alder Creek area where it owned land within the park boundaries. In addition to the large scale logging industries, many smaller logging operations worked in the forests of Yosemite Valley, Aspen Valley, Canyon Ranch, Foresta, and Wawona.

Beginning in 1933, the Civilian Conservation Corps under the auspices of the Public Works Administration also completed an extensive range of projects in Yosemite, including construction of roads, trails, bridges, fire roads, fire buildings, fire lanes, fire trails, comfort stations, and campgrounds. Additional projects included river and creek bank stabilization, revegetation, extensive landscaping, and debris cleanup.

Fire in Early Yosemite History.  While it has been hypothesized that the reduction in fire frequencies seen in the early 1800s was due to the decline in American Indian population, the use of anthropogenic fire did not stop when the Euro-Americans arrived. Fire was used by miners during the gold rush era to aid in general land clearing (Caprio and Swetnam 1995; Kilgore and Taylor 1979; SNEP 1996). John Muir (1938) noted “fire was also heavily employed by the early sheep and cattle men who pastured their herds in the mountains and burned the land behind them as they descended from the mountains each year.”

By the mid- to late-19th century fire was seen by most as “dangerous” and ecologically devastating. The 1866 California State Legislature Act that accepted the Yosemite Grant stipulated that:

It shall be unlawful for any person willfully to … cut down or carry off any wood, underwood, tree, or timber, or girdle, or otherwise injure any tree or timber, or deface or injure any natural object, or set fire to any wood or grass upon said premises…Any person committing either or any of said acts … shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine, not exceeding five hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the County Jail…

~ (Commissioners 1867: 24)

The impacts of fire suppression soon changed the scenic qualities for which Yosemite Valley was set aside. The dichotomy between suppressing fire and wanting open, “park-like grounds” can be seen as early as 1880 when J. M. Hutchings, in his Report of the Guardian, stated: “A dense growth of underbrush, almost from one end of the Valley to the other, not only offends the eye and shuts out its magnificent views, but monopolizes and appropriates its best land, to the exclusion of valuable forage plants and wild flowers” (Commissioners, 1880: 7). He goes on to state the danger of fire, while setting a policy of fire suppression and selected thinning and pile burning which would stand for almost one hundred years:

This magnificent forest of giant forms [the Mariposa Grove of Big Trees], commanding, as it deservedly does, the admiration of every beholder, is in great danger of being irreparably injured, if not destroyed, by fire. Immense masses of rotten wood, and of fallen trees, full of pitch, lie immediately contiguous to, and, in many instances, directly against the base of these noble monarchs, inviting their destruction, should fire ever enter their impressive precincts. There can be but little doubt that no time should be lost in removing this inflammable material to a safe distance, and carefully burning it, to protect this wonderful grove from destruction

~ (Commissioners 1880: 9).

The conflicts surrounding the encroachment of underbrush and buildup of fuels and the appropriate use of fire has been a continuing struggle since the cessation of American Indian burning practices.

Archaeological Resources

In general, archaeological sites are important for the information they can provide regarding prehistoric and historic lifeways. They are also important to people as a tangible link with the past. Prehistoric sites in Yosemite generally contain: flaked and ground stone tools, waste from tool manufacture, food processing features, fire hearths, structural remains, human burials, and rock art. Historic archaeological sites provide important information not available in written records, such as cultural patterns typically omitted from historical literature (related to gender and ethnic groups), early building construction techniques, lifestyles of early settlers, trade and procurement of goods and materials, and interactions with native peoples. Historic sites include such things as structural remains, waste dumps, work camps, and remains of logging, hydrological manipulation, and mining activities.

In most cases, archaeological inventories have been conducted in support of park development projects. Most of this work has focused on lower elevation developed areas and road corridors. The archaeological database is, thus, not a representative sample of the park (Hull and Moratto 1999). The lack of surveys extends to the existing fire management zones (table 3.11 and map 3-3).

In general, archaeological resources are at greater risk of damage and/or loss from high-intensity burns than low-intensity burns. The heavy fuel loads and unnaturally dense forest stands existing in parts of Yosemite today, decrease ground visibility, which in turn decreases the probability that archaeological resources will be detected during inventories. Large fuel loads also increase the risk of high-intensity wildland fires, thus increasing the potential for damaging archaeological resources.

Recent studies on the historic American Indian use of fire (Anderson 1983; Anderson and Moratto 1996) suggest that fires lit by American Indian would have been centered around late prehistoric and protohistoric occupation sites. It is possible this pattern of land management also extends into the more distant past and areas surrounding many of the prehistoric occupation sites may have been subject to a greater degree of fire than similar areas that did not contain such occupation sites (Wickstrom 1987). The extent of fire, both lightning- and American Indian- ignited, prior to 20th century suppression efforts makes it likely that many prehistoric archaeological resources have been repeatedly exposed to fire in the past. Therefore, we can assume most of the damage that could occur to these archaeological sites from low-intensity fires has already occurred at many of these sites. A prescribed fire regime, that maintains relatively light fuel loads, can therefore actually protect many archaeological sites from damage of intense wildfires (Jackson 1997).

Ethnographic Resources

The National Park Service defines ethnographic resources as any “site, structure, object, landscape, or natural resource feature assigned traditional, legendary, religious, subsistence, or other significance in the cultural system of a group traditionally associated with it” (NPS 1998a).  A traditional cultural property is an ethnographic resource that is eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. Two places in Yosemite Valley have been proposed as traditional cultural properties.

Many American Indian people and groups continue their traditional cultural association with park lands and resources. At least seven federally recognized tribal groups and nonrecognized American Indian communities are associated with the park. These park-associated tribes and groups include the American Indian Council of Mariposa County, Inc. (Southern Sierra Miwok); the North Fork Mono Rancheria; the Tuolumne Band of Me-Wuk Indians; the Picayune Rancheria; the Mono Lake Indian Community; the Bridgeport Paiute Indian Colony; and the Bishop Paiute Tribe.

The National Park Service consults with park-associated American Indian tribes and groups regarding annual fire programs and in emergency wildland fire situations. In general, American Indian groups have expressed concern about landscape changes caused by fire exclusion, the abundance and vigor of traditionally used plants (many of which were managed by fire), damage to traditionally used plants resulting from cutting or burning in the wrong season, and protection of archaeological objects and features—both from damaging effects of heating and direct impacts associated with fire management activities (thinning trees, building hand-lines, etc.).

Based on consultations with American Indian tribes and groups as well as research related to American Indian use of fire, park objectives to manage cultural resources are to develop project-specific objectives. Mitigating measures related to ethnographic resources will be taken where necessary and appropriate, in consultation with park-associated American Indian tribes and groups.

American Indian Use of Fire to Influence the Environment.  American Indians have intensively managed biotic resources in the Sierra Nevada for thousands of years. Resource management practices were widespread, producing ecological and evolutionary consequences in ecosystems of the region (Anderson and Moratto 1996). In order to meet their requirements for firewood, fish and game, plant foods, craft supplies, and building materials, American Indian peoples shaped the distribution, structure, composition, and extent of certain plant and animal communities. This was accomplished using proto-agricultural techniques such as pruning, sowing, weeding, tilling, selective harvesting, and burning.

Fire was the American Indians’ most important management tool in the Yosemite region, and was used most commonly in the foothill woodland, chaparral, mixed conifer, riparian corridors, and meadow vegetation types. Generally fire was used “to clear brush, maintain grasslands and meadows, improve browse for deer, enhance production of basketry and cordage materials, modify understory species composition in forests, and reduce fuel accumulation that might otherwise sustain intense fires” (Anderson and Moratto 1996:193). Fire was used to foster desirable attributes in certain plants and “individual shrubs or clusters of shrubs were burned to manipulate the plant architecture and keep the plants insects and pathogen-free” (Anderson 1993:xvi). Appendix 8 presents a table of traditionally gathered plants with information about the various ways fire was used to manipulate plant growth.

In addition, “burning at higher elevations was for the expressed purpose of removing shrub and duff layer… causing ephemeral creeks and streams to run longer in the summer” (Anderson and Moratto1996:200). Fire was also used in hunting and driving small mammals, insects, and birds. The broad result of American Indian-based management was continuous introduction of small disturbance regimes that created openings or clearings in various plant community types. These clearings allowed early-seral plants to grow in, which created a greater diversity of species and increased productivity.

In areas where American Indians lived, fuel loads and forest conditions were further altered by daily firewood use. Anderson and Moratto (1996:196) estimate that each household would have used an average of 10 kg (22 lb) of firewood each day. Some larger villages (300 to 500 members) could use 250 metric tons of firewood annually.

Use of fire by American Indians may have encouraged a diverse habitat near areas of human habitation. For these and other reasons noted above, it is critical that land managers understand American Indian burning objectives and practices for management of different plants and landscapes. It is only with an understanding of these previous human-based disturbance regimes that current land managers can assess current landscape conditions and re-integrate fire into the ecosystem.

Cultural Landscape Resources (Including Historic Sites and Structures)

A cultural landscape is a reflection of human adaptation and use of natural resources and is often expressed in the way land is organized and divided, patterns of settlement, land use, systems of circulation, and the types of structures that are built. Shaped through time by historical land use and management practices, as well as politics and property laws, levels of technology, and economic conditions, cultural landscapes provide a living record of an area’s past, a visual chronicle of its history. The National Park Service defines and actively manages four types of cultural landscapes: designed landscapes, vernacular landscapes, historic sites, and ethnographic landscapes (NPS 1998a). Sixty-five potential cultural landscapes are identified within the park.

Preservation of cultural landscapes requires long-term management of the characteristics and features that give them their historical significance. These characteristics are not managed in isolation but as a whole. What makes the cultural landscape significant is the relationship among isolated features such as roads and fences, orchard trees and outbuildings, grinding stones and house remains. In this regard, protection of cultural landscapes in fire regimes requires a broad view of effects and holistic preservation strategies.

Historic structures are significant because they reflect important eras or the influence of individuals important in the human history of the park. Five National Historic Landmarks are located in Yosemite: The Ahwahnee, the LeConte Memorial Lodge, Parson’s Memorial Lodge, the Rangers’ Club and garage, and the Wawona Hotel. These reflect the highest level of historic significance. The National Park Service is charged with maintaining all historically significant structures to prevent any degradation of significant characteristics. The List of Classified Structures (1998c) for Yosemite identifies nearly 500 historic structures. Many of these are listed or eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places. The existing accumulation of burnable materials across Yosemite’s landscape means that many historic sites such as homesteads, mining cabins, railroad grades, and other resources – and the information contained within these historic sites – are at risk of being lost to wildland fires.

Although the park lacks a comprehensive, park-wide inventory of historic sites and structures, there is a great deal of information about Yosemite’s historical resources. An overview of historic resources was conducted in 1987 and an inventory of historic resources in wilderness areas was conducted in the late 1980s and early 1990s (NPS 1989, 1990). Approximately two thousand historic trails, tree blazes, buildings, structures, and miscellaneous features were documented. In addition, comprehensive inventories and evaluations of historic sites, structures, and cultural landscape resources have been undertaken for Yosemite Valley and El Portal (NPS 1994, 1998b, 2001). Many different historic resource property types are documented (and expected) in Yosemite (Hull and Moratto 1999).

Social Environment

Recreation

This purpose of this topic is to describe the relationship between fire management activities and recreation in Yosemite National Park. It provides the basis for the subsequent evaluation of recreational issues, as they are influenced by routine fire management activities, such as prescribed fire, managed wildland fires, and fuel reduction.

Yosemite National Park, as guided by its enabling legislation and the National Park Service Organic Act of 1916, has two interwoven purposes:

The first is the preservation of the resources that contribute to Yosemite’s uniqueness and attractiveness its exquisite scenic beauty; outstanding wilderness values; a nearly full diversity of Sierra Nevada environments, including the very special sequoia groves; the awesome domes, valleys, polished granites, and other evidences of the geologic processes that formed the Sierra Nevada; historic resources, especially those relating to the beginnings of a national conservation ethic; and evidences of the Indians who lived on the land. The second purpose is to make the varied resources of Yosemite available to people for their individual enjoyment, education, and recreation, now and in the future.

 ~ (1980 General Management Plan)

Visitor Use

For the last decade, park visitation has been between 3.5 and 4.1 million people annually. Most people come during late spring through early autumn. Over half of Yosemite’s visitors enter Yosemite Valley. Visitation to Yosemite increased steadily from 1990 through 1996. In the aftermath of the flood of 1997, fewer people came to Yosemite, however, visitation may again be on the rise. In 2000 visitation was slightly over 3.5 million (figure 3.1)

Figure 3.1   January - December 2000 Visitation, Yosemite National Park. Number of Visitors by month. Total Visitation = 3,550,065

Fire management activities can affect visitors in several ways.  Smoke is the most obvious – it can affect visitors throughout the park – especially during wildland fire season in the Sierra Nevada. Because of the need to protect people and buildings, the most heavily visited areas of the park are also the areas most impacted by prescribed burning. Visitors are most likely to be exposed to prescribed burning during the months of May and June (spring burning) and September through mid-December (fall burning). This includes work in Yosemite Valley, Wawona, and other developed areas. Visitors from late May through late October are the most likely to be exposed to the effects of wildland fires since most of these fires occur between late June and late September. Wilderness hikers may be prohibited from entering an area in which a wildland fire is burning or may elect to avoid areas because of smoky conditions.

Valley Visitation.  The number of visitors to the Valley tends to vary by month in a pattern similar to park-wide visitation. More than 50% of the total annual visitors come to the Valley in July and August. During August 1998, on an average day, an estimated 10,950 day visitors and 6,383 overnight visitors were in the Valley for at least a portion of the day. Daily visitation in April averaged 7,624, that year, substantially lower than in the peak season.

Wilderness Visitation.  In Yosemite, 704,624 acres are designated wilderness. Nearly 50,000 visitors per year enter the wilderness areas. They are the most likely to be exposed to effects from managed wildland fires. This would occur primarily between late June and late September, when the frequency of lightning fires is greatest.

The Yosemite Experience

For many visitors, driving through the park is the primary means for experiencing the spectacular views of Yosemite. And en route, the drive into the park is also usually a pleasurable experience, contributing to visitors’ enjoyment of the park. Many visitors make informal stops along park roads to take advantage of the unique and varied scenery. Visitor activities in Yosemite National Park include sightseeing, walking and hiking, bicycling, climbing, horseback riding and packing, picnicking, and nature photography.

Many people come to Yosemite to see the Valley’s grandeur—it’s waterfalls and geologic features. In the Valley the continuum of visitor experiences extends from highly social to isolated, from independent to directed, from spontaneous to controlled, from easy to challenging, and from natural to more urban. For many, the Valley provides a transition zone, a place neither urban nor wilderness, but with elements of both. Quiet, an important characteristic of a quality visit for many visitors is sometimes difficult to find, as roads carry traffic on both sides of the Merced River for nearly the entire length of the Valley.

Because of its limited facilities and access, many of the Valley’s more natural experiences are found in the west Valley. A hiking and stock trail loops around the Valley perimeter, but bicyclists currently have access to the west Valley only by sharing roads with motor vehicles. A concessioner-operated tram/bus tour provides narrated tours of the entire Valley for a fee, but the free shuttle bus system serves only the east Valley.

For visitors to Yosemite wilderness, the vast area allows visitors to explore and discover the natural beauty of many geologic features, the rivers, streams, lakes and many species of plants and animals. The remote areas of the wilderness provide outstanding opportunities for solitude and a primitive and unconfined type of recreation. The wilderness area is accessed by almost 800 miles of marked and maintained trails, as well as several hundred miles of cross-country zones. Visitor use and access is managed by trailhead quotas, through a wilderness permit system. Camping is generally allowed anywhere in the wilderness provided it is at least 100 feet from any water body, and is discouraged in sensitive areas (i.e., meadows and other areas with fragile vegetation).

Fire Information

Most prescribed burns and wildland fires take place using limited closures or management restrictions. Emphasis is placed on providing information to visitors, to reduce impacts on their visit, and to promote public safety. Visitors to Yosemite National Park can use park and other information resources to receive information on the fire management activities that might have an influence upon their visit. The park’s public information office and incident fire information personnel distribute information through press releases, special notices and other communications, as needed to inform other agencies, communities and individuals of fire management activities. For some fire management activities, visitors are given information at park entrance stations, while signs are used to inform visitors along major thoroughfares, including roads and trails. Staff at park visitor centers post information on cautions, closures, and restrictions, as needed, and are available to answer questions and provide interpretation regarding fire management activities and their purposes.

Scenic Resources

The visual resources of Yosemite include not only the iconoclastic views within the Valley, but also expansive views in the Yosemite Wilderness, views seen along the major roads, and views within other major destinations. Fire management activities, especially smoke, while seeming to spoil scenic views, can enhance scenic resources in Yosemite. Fires can help restore open vistas and maintain ecosystem health—thereby contributing to scenic resource values.

Visual Resources of Yosemite National Park

Yosemite Valley.  Scenic resources have been studied and analyzed in Yosemite National Park since at least 1865, when a board of commissioners appointed by the governor of the State of California commissioned three artists to study and document the scenery of Yosemite. The 11 most important features within Yosemite Valley have been identified as Half Dome, Yosemite Falls, El Capitan, Bridalveil Fall, Three Brothers, Cathedral Rocks and Spires, Sentinel Rock, Glacier Point, North Dome, Washington Column, and Royal Arches (NPS 1980). Other important scenic resources viewable in Yosemite Valley include: Nevada, Illilouette, and Ribbon Falls; the cliffs at Yosemite Point/Lost Arrow Spine; and the scenic interface of river, rock, meadow, and forest throughout the Valley.

Wilderness.  Visual resources in the wilderness are less studied than those in Yosemite Valley and other developed areas, but exhibit equivalent scenic resource value. The Merced and Tuolumne watersheds and their many lakes, falls, and valleys; granite domes; and the peaks of the Sierra crest dominate the scenery of Yosemite’s wilderness. Only a small fraction of the visitors to the park ever directly experience the scenic resources beyond the view of roads and highways but the lack of people and modern cultural artifacts enhances the beauty of the area, as well as the opportunity to enjoy these landscapes.

Major Thoroughfares.  Tioga Road offers broad alpine views of meadows, domes, distant peaks, and Tenaya Lake. Exfoliating granite surfaces along the Tioga Road provide a unique view of the geologic processes at work in Yosemite. Approaching Yosemite Valley from the north and south, visitors are afforded views from above the lower canyon of the Merced River. Views from major thoroughfares are important to most visitors. Many vistas are being obscured by vegetation.  

Wawona Area.  Scenery in the Wawona Area includes the South Fork of the Merced River, forests, granite features such as Wawona Dome, and the Wawona Hotel and the elements (including golf course) of its historic landscape. Near views include managed landscapes throughout the private development in Section 35 downriver to the Wawona Campground.

El Portal.  Scenery in El Portal includes the V-shaped Merced River gorge, with its steep, unglaciated terrain and woodland and grassland cover, and the rocky, boulder strewn, river bed.

Common Conditions Affecting Visual Resources

Decreased visibility is experienced at times from smoke caused by natural and prescribed fires or campfires and in many areas by over grown vegetation. Diurnal patterns of air movement very commonly result in morning concentrations of smoke in places like Yosemite Valley and in other basins.

A condition that may substantially impair the enjoyment of visual resources at times in all areas of the park is the decreased visibility caused by photochemical smog. The degree of reduction in visibility is a function of the time of day, relative humidity, and meteorological conditions. However, because nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbon concentrations in the park approach levels recorded in urban areas, it is assumed that some decrease in visibility in Yosemite is associated with vehicle exhaust emissions.

Cultural landscape patterns, caused by past human activity, also affect visual resources in the park. This is especially true in Yosemite Valley. Early photos of the Valley show that the meadows were considerably larger. This was because of American Indians regularly burning the meadows and the high water table and seasonal flooding that took place prior to the blasting of a portion of the El Capitan moraine in 1879.

Noise

This section describes the relationship between fire management activities and the soundscape in Yosemite National Park. For the purpose of this analysis, noise is defined as human-caused sound. Noise levels in any one area of the park are influenced by the number of people, the amount and type of traffic and other mechanical noise, and distance to sources of noise. Atmospheric effects such as wind, temperature, humidity, topography, rain, fog, and snow can affect the presence or absence of noise.  Natural sound from Yosemite’s waterfalls, flowing water, animals, wind, and rustling tree leaves may be quite loud, however it is not considered to be noise. Natural sound levels in Yosemite vary by location, time of day (birdsong), and season (water in the waterfalls and rivers is highest in the spring).

Whether a noise or sound is considered unpleasant depends on the individual listening; an individual’s tolerance for noise, expectations of noise levels, and activity when the sound is heard (i.e., working, playing, resting, sleeping) all influence the perception of noise and sound. Noises have different effects on people depending on where they are and where the noise originates (for example, visitors are less sensitive to certain sounds in Yosemite Valley than to the same sounds when heard in wilderness). 

Existing Sound/ Noise Environment

Measurements were obtained using a Larson Davis sound-level meter (Model 700) calibrated with a Larson Davis sound-level calibrator. For the purpose of this analysis, sound and noise levels are expressed in decibels on the “A” weighted scale (dBA) because it most closely approximates the response characteristics of the human ear to low-level sound. At each measurement location observations of the background sound level were made over a period ranging from one to five minutes. In addition, observers noted the sources contributing to the background level and noted any sources that caused intrusive noises above the typical background level (NPS 2000c).

In Yosemite Valley, measured sound levels indicated that the background (minimal) sound level is 31 to 32 dBA (measured near the Upper Pines Campground in the early morning). Near rivers, when water flow is minimal, sound levels averaged 37 dBA, but near flowing water sound levels averaged 44 dBA and near cascading water sound levels averaged 55 dBA. Finally, near the base of waterfalls, sound levels averaged 68 dBA. Sound levels associated with rivers increase as the flow of water increases and in areas where rocks and waterfalls were present. Yosemite Valley noise levels ranged from 44 to 47 dBA along the Lower Yosemite Fall trail when no water was running in Yosemite Creek to 59 dBA near Happy Isles, mainly from people using trails and facilities nearby. At Upper Pines Campground, sound levels were at 55 dBA when human activity levels were high. At Devils Elbow, when the sound of the river was minimal, noise levels were 44 dBA but peaked at 67 dBA when a bus passed by on Northside Drive.

In Wawona, sound levels were measured in the middle of the old Wawona Bridge and west of the Covered Bridge near the Pioneer Yosemite History Center. Sound levels in these areas were 50 and 44 dBA, respectively, with maximum-recorded levels of 59 dBA near the old Wawona bridge.

In Yosemite, 55% of visitors surveyed about aircraft noise reported hearing aircraft sometime during their visit (NPS 1994b). Recognition of noise from aircraft was highly variable from location to location, and impacts to visitors were greater in areas with less vehicle noise and fewer people. In 1993, measurements made at four locations within the park indicated that aircraft were audible 30% to 60% of the time during each six-hour measurement period. Most overflights are from high-altitude jet aircraft.

Table 3.12 shows some representative noise and sound sources, their associated dBA levels, and corresponding effects (FICN, 1992). Also listed is the relative loudness at which an average person would rate the sound sources, using noise levels during a quiet urban daytime as a reference level. For the average human, a 10 dB increase in the measured sound level is subjectively perceived as being twice as loud. The decibel change at which the average human will indicate that the sound is just perceptibly louder or perceptibly quieter is 3 dB.

Fire Management Related Sources of Noise.  The noises associated with fire management activities are generally from mechanical equipment, motor vehicles, and aircraft. Machinery used and amount of noise produced while performing specific fire or fuel management activities varies by the location of the activity (different equipment is used in wilderness than along road corridors, for example).

Mechanical Equipment.  Mechanical equipment associated with fire management activities comprises both portable equipment used in remote areas and large equipment used near roads and the wildland/urban interface. Noises from chainsaws, wood chippers, and portable water pumps are very loud (table 3.12) and this equipment is generally used in remote areas, away from concentrations of people or major thoroughfares. However, remote areas typically have low background noise levels and visitors are likely to be more noise sensitive. Noise from large mechanical equipment, like feller-bunchers, is similar to that of a caterpillar (table 3.12). These might be used where background noise and expectations of noise would be higher.

Table 3.12   Sound Levels and Relative Loudness of Typical Noise Sources

Sources:  FICN, 1992, except: 1 Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety; 2  National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety.

Motor Vehicle Noise.  Fire management vehicles include pickup trucks and wildland fire engines (trucks equipped with water tanks, pumps, and hoses). The noises associated with use of these vehicles would be similar to the noise from automobiles, recreational vehicles, commercial buses, shuttle buses, and trucks using the park road system. Noise from motor vehicles is obviously loudest immediately adjacent to the roadways, but due to generally low background sound levels in much of Yosemite, can be audible a long distance from the roads. Noise levels from motor vehicles will be loudest where and when activity levels are the greatest.

Aircraft Noise.  Aircraft are often used in fire management activities. Helicopters are used to move equipment and personnel for managing and monitoring wildland fires. The National Park Service also uses helicopters in carrying out its other responsibilities, including search and rescue, medical evacuations, law enforcement, and other special operations (NPS 1993). Helicopter noises can be quite loud (table 3.12) and intrusive.

Socioeconomics

This section examines the social and economic environments that may be affected by the alternatives. The discussion covers local communities in and near Yosemite and emphasizes characteristics that have the potential to be affected by fire management activities in and around the park.

The affected environment includes the five primary gateway counties to Yosemite National Park: Madera, Mariposa, Merced, Mono, and Tuolumne Counties. The four main access roads to the park pass through all five gateway counties: Highway 41 through Madera and Mariposa Counties, Highway 140 through Mariposa and Merced Counties, Highway 120 east through Mono County, and Highway 120 west through Tuolumne County (map 2.17). The affected environment generally includes those cities within 100 miles, or two and one half hours driving time, from Yosemite Valley, which is used as the central measuring point for the park. Travel and lodging expenditures within the 100-mile radius of Yosemite Valley are likely to be Yosemite-related, since the park is the dominant tourist destination in the region (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

The main developed areas within park boundaries and the El Portal Administrative Site are in Mariposa County. Communities of Yosemite Village, El Portal, Wawona, Foresta, Yosemite West, and Aspen Valley are within or abutting the park or El Portal.

Stanislaus, San Joaquin, and Fresno Counties were excluded from the analysis because it is difficult to distinguish the portions of the tourist economies of these counties that are associated with Yosemite visitation versus other tourist destinations. Also, tourism is a relatively small component of these counties’ overall economies.

Regional Comparison

Population.  In 1998, the total population of the five-county affected region was approximately 391,891 (table 3.13) Merced County is the most populous county, with roughly 197,730 residents. Mono County is the least populous of the five counties, with about 10,288 residents, despite having the largest land area. Mariposa County has a total population of approximately 15,877 residents. Madera County has 114,748 residents, while Tuolumne County has 53, 248. The populations of all five counties in the affected region are predicted to grow steadily through the year 2040.

Taxable Retail Sales.  Taxable retail sales are a good indicator of annual spending in the travel-service sectors, since they represent the taxes paid for transactions with consumers. The total taxable retail sales figures include the taxes paid by businesses on raw materials and services (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999). In 1998, the total taxable retail sales for the five counties was nearly $3.0 billion (1998 dollars). Merced County accounted for approximately 49.9% of total taxable sales in the five-county affected region, followed by Madera County, which accounted for 26.5%. Mariposa County, which includes service areas of Yosemite Valley, El Portal, and Wawona, accounted for about 4.2% of total taxable sales. Table 3.14 shows total taxable retail sales by county.

Visitor Spending.  Table 3.15 provides estimates of total Yosemite visitor spending within the Yosemite region. Using estimated daily per capita spending figures for each visitor category and 1998 visitation figures, the total Yosemite visitor spending in 1998 is estimated to be approximately $240 million (1998 dollars). This figure represents only Yosemite visitor spending in the park and surrounding region. Yosemite visitors staying overnight outside of the affected region are recognized as day visitors. As a result, their spending on lodging and other services outside the affected region is not included (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Table 3.15   Total Spending by Yosemite Visitor Population Categories in 1998 (in 1998 dollars)

1  Local overnighter typically make multiple visits to the park during their Yosemite trip. However, each day trip into the park corresponds to one day of spending in the region.

Source:  Dornbusch & Company Inc. 1999.

County Profiles

Madera County.  The central economic activity in Madera County is agriculture, which constitutes nearly one-third of the county’s total employment and over 20% of the county’s personal income and economic output. The agricultural sector stimulates production in related sectors of the economy, including jobs in food processing, transportation, and wholesale trade (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999). Total wage and salary employment in Madera County is expected to grow by approximately 22% from 1995 to 2002. Most of the new job growth is expected to be in services and manufacturing (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999). The portion of the county most likely to be affected by fire management activities is located along Highway 41, including the community of Oakhurst, which is highly dependent upon tourism.

Mariposa County.  The county’s primary recreation area/tourist attraction is Yosemite National Park, much of which lies within the county as do the developed areas of Yosemite Valley, Wawona, and the El Portal Administrative Site. Major recreation areas in Mariposa County include Stanislaus National Forest and Sierra National Forest, including the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management recreation areas along the Merced River. Other recreation sites in Mariposa County include Lake McSwain and Lake McClure, where camping is available (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Recreation and tourism are major industries in Mariposa County and lodging, food and beverage, and other service industries that cater to tourism are central to the county’s economy. Tourism accounted for nearly 50% of employment and over one-third of personal income and economic output in 1996. Government is also a major economic sector in the county, accounting for 23.1% of employment, 21.7% of income, and 13.3% of total output. The finance, insurance, and real estate sector accounted for 17.9% of income and 15.3% of economic output, although only about 4% of total employment.

Merced County.  Merced County, located west of Yosemite National Park, has the largest economy in the region. Agriculture is the largest economic sector in Merced County and in 1996 it accounted for over 20% of employment, 17.7% of personal income, and 19.7% of economic output. The primary commodities include milk products, chicken, and cattle. The economy has a light industry component, much of which is geared toward agricultural products (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999). Merced County’s primary tourist attraction, particularly for the city of Merced, is Yosemite National Park, which is located over 50 miles from the county’s eastern boundary (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Mono County.  Mono County is the primary gateway county for visitors entering through the eastern park entrance. Park access via the road is not plowed of snow and the entrance is closed in the winter from November to late May. Lodging, food and beverage, and other services are central to Mono County’s economy, which is also bolstered by extensive natural resources and recreational opportunities. In 1996, approximately 50% of employment and over one-third of personal income and economic output in Mono County were provided by hotels and lodging, food and beverage, and other service industries. Mammoth Lakes, which is located in southern Mono County, is the center of the county’s winter tourism industry and is the fastest growing community in the county. Related employment is erratic since it depends heavily on snowfall at Mammoth Lakes Ski Resort (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999).

Tuolumne County.  Yosemite National Park is in the southeastern portion of Tuolumne County. The services sector was the largest employer in the county in 1996, accounting for 24.4% of employment and over 18% of personal income and economic output. Non-farm employment in Tuolumne County is projected to grow by 15% from 1995 to 2002 as the county experiences continued population growth. Most of the job growth is expected in the services, retail trade, construction, and manufacturing sectors. The services sector is expected to create the greatest number of new jobs, reflecting an increased demand for business, health, personal, and hospitality services (Dornbusch & Company, Inc. 1999). Other recreational attractions in Tuolumne County include Columbia State Park, Stanislaus National Forest, Dodge Ridge Ski Area, and Leland Meadows.

Local Communities

The communities of El Portal, Wawona, Foresta, Yosemite West, Aspen Valley, and those in Yosemite Valley are in or abutting Yosemite National Park and the El Portal Administrative Site.

Yosemite Valley.  Yosemite Valley is the park’s most popular visitor destination and over 80% of self-driven tourists visit the Valley (Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates 1998). It is also home to park and concessioner employees and their families. The Valley is the economic center of Yosemite National Park.

Facilities.  Yosemite Valley hosts the most concentrated array of visitor services and facilities in the park. Yosemite Village is the core area for most of the development and day use in Yosemite Valley and includes a visitor center, museum, concessioner Village Store complex and food service, and National Park Service and primary park concessioner administration offices. Camping in Yosemite Valley is provided at six campgrounds that provide a total of 475 campsites. The three drive-in campgrounds, Upper Pines Campground, Lower Pines Campground, and North Pines Campground, operate on a reservation system though the National Park Reservation Service. Camp 4 (Sunnyside Campground) is a first-come, first-served walk-in campground. Backpackers Campground, another walk-in campground, is reserved for pre- and post-trip nights for wilderness permit holders. Yellow Pine is primarily a National Park Service volunteer walk-in campground. Although the campgrounds are not concession operated, campers use concession facilities located elsewhere, including showers, coin-operated laundries, stores, and restaurants. The revenue-generating services in Yosemite Valley are predominantly operated by the primary park concessioner. Major concessioner facilities outside of Yosemite Village include the 245-room Yosemite Lodge, 123 rooms at The Ahwahnee, the 264-unit Housekeeping Camp, the 631-unit Curry Village, and the Valley stable. The lodging facilities are accompanied by concession- operated food service and stores. The concessioner operates several equipment-rental establishments that provide bicycles, rafts, and cross-country skis.

Employment.  Approximately 20% of park employees work seasonally—most of them work during summer, the peak season. During the summer of 1998, the National Park Service employed approximately 412 people in the Valley. Each summer, the primary park concessioner employs approximately 1,378 people in Yosemite Valley.

Population and Housing.  The residential population during the peak season is approximately 1,500 (employees and their families). National Park Service employees are generally housed in single-family homes or apartments. The National Park Service provides approximately 73 housing beds in Yosemite Valley. The primary park concessioner provides approximately 1,167 housing beds in Yosemite Valley during the peak season. There is high seasonal variation in the number of concession employees housed in the Valley, ranging from about 1,167 employees during the summer to about 800 in the winter. Most of the park concessioner seasonal employees reside in dormitories or camps of tent cabins.

El Portal.  The El Portal Administrative Site is a 1,398-acre area that was designated as an administrative area for the park in 1958. It is located on Highway 140, approximately 16 miles west of Yosemite Valley. The community of El Portal is generally considered to extend west from the Yosemite View Lodge near the Yosemite National Park boundary to Savage’s Trading Post near the South Fork of the Merced River. The El Portal Town Planning Advisory Committee represents the community concerns and issues raised throughout the El Portal area. It is an official body sanctioned by Mariposa County ordinance and recognized by the National Park Service.

Facilities.  El Portal functions primarily as a National Park Service employee residential area and a maintenance and utilities site. The National Park Service also has administrative and research facilities in El Portal. Concession facilities in El Portal include a small grocery store and a gas station. Concessioners other than the primary park concessioner operate these facilities. A 278-room hotel, with restaurant facilities and a grocery/gift store, is located on private land near the park boundary. El Portal also is the headquarters for the Yosemite Association housed in the historic Bagby train station, and the Yosemite Institute housed in the El Portal Hotel.

Employment.  The National Park Service employs approximately 263 people in El Portal. The school, grocery store, Yosemite Association, and Yosemite Institute offer additional seasonal and year-round employment.

Population and Housing.  El Portal is a small community of approximately 700 residents. Individuals living in El Portal generally work for the National Park Service or the primary park concessioner. Compared to Yosemite Valley, greater proportions of El Portal residents are married and have children. Many employees who reside in El Portal do not live in government- or company-owned housing. Many homes in Old El Portal are privately owned and are administered through the park’s special-use permit program. Presently, regulations are being developed to describe the administrative relationship between these private homeowners and the National Park Service.

Wawona.  Wawona is located in the southwestern portion of Yosemite National Park on Highway 41. The town is generally considered to encompass all developed areas within Section 35. The Wawona Town Planning Advisory Committee represents the community concerns and issues raised throughout the Wawona area. It is an official body sanctioned by Mariposa County ordinance and is recognized by the National Park Service.

Facilities. The National Park Service operates the 93-site Wawona Campground, the 2-campsite Wawona Horse Camp, and the Pioneer Yosemite History Center, which is a collection of historic buildings relocated to the Wawona area from various locations throughout the park. The National Park Service offers stagecoach rides across the Wawona Covered Bridge to the Pioneer Yosemite History Center. Concession facilities in Wawona include the 104-room Wawona Hotel complex, which features a dining room, bar, golf course, pro shop, and snack bar. Other concession facilities include a grocery store, gift shop, service station, and stables (NPS 1992).

Employment.  The National Park Service employs approximately 60 people in Wawona during the peak season and the primary park concessioner employs approximately 130 people, the majority of whom are employed at the Wawona Hotel complex.

Population and Housing.  The population of Wawona varies from a summer high of about 1,000 to a winter low of about 160 residents. Many individuals living in Wawona are retired, have external incomes, and are seasonal residents. Most of the residences in Wawona are located in Section 35, which includes about 350 homes. Approximately 300 residences are privately owned (some of these residences are included in the National Park Service land acquisition program), 50 residences are managed and used by the National Park Service, and five residences are managed by the National Park Service and leased to individuals (including three to the primary park concessioner) under fixed-term or lifetime leases. The primary park concessioner provides approximately 62 housing beds in Wawona. Concession housing includes individual residences, group houses with dormitory-style beds, and tents.

Foresta.  Foresta is located to the west of Yosemite Valley and north of El Portal at approximately 5,000 feet in elevation.  The community of Foresta is generally considered to extend from near the Foresta Road/Old Coulterville Road junction (near the Foresta wood lot), west to a location near the McCauly Ranch. The Stanislaus National Forest is immediately adjacent to Foresta. The Foresta Association represents Foresta property owners. This group facilitates communications between Foresta property owners, with the objective of presenting a unified position to the National Park Service regarding land-use issues.

Facilities.  Foresta is predominately a residential community with no services. Before the 1990 A-Rock Fire, the population of Foresta was made up mostly of individuals who were not employed by the National Park Service or concessioners. In the summer of 1990, a wildland fire destroyed many of the homes in Foresta.

Population and Housing.  Foresta provides a small amount of housing for National Park Service, concessioner, and Yosemite Institute employees. Currently, 12 homes located in Foresta are occupied by approximately 25 to 50 residents. All houses in Foresta are small, single-family units. A number of the homes have been rebuilt since the fire, and there are now about 45 homes in Foresta. The National Park Service owned 15 houses in 1990, 14 of which burned.

Yosemite West.  Yosemite West is located immediately outside the park boundary and is accessed from the Wawona Road via Henness Ridge Road. The Yosemite West Town Planning Advisory Committee represents community concerns and issues raised by residents throughout the Yosemite West area. The committee is an official body sanctioned by Mariposa County ordinance. As such, the National Park Service recognizes the Town Planning Advisory Committee as the official representative to Mariposa County for the residents of the Yosemite West area.

Facilities.  Yosemite West is a small community with few amenities. Currently, in the immediate area of Yosemite West, only about half of the developable lots are built on. Most individuals living in Yosemite West do not work for the National Park Service or the concessioner. Many are retired, have an external income, and are seasonal residents. Others are home-based business owners. Though outside the park boundary, Yosemite West can be reached only by traveling through the park. Access into and out of the area is available via one road, essentially making the area a cul-de-sac.

Population and Housing.  Yosemite West has both permanent and seasonal residents, with a summer population that rarely exceeds 500. Yosemite West is an established subdivision made up of permanent residents, including National Park Service and concessioner employees, retirees, transient rental owners and their employees, and second homeowners who spend weekends and summers there. Yosemite West property owners have formed the Yosemite West Property and Homeowners, Inc. Housing types range from older, modest cabins to condominiums and large, modern homes. All homes in Yosemite West are privately owned, and many are managed as transient rental properties or as “bed and breakfast” inns. For this reason, many residents act as onsite business owners/operators.

Aspen Valley.  Aspen Valley is a small area of private inholdings located on the Old Tioga Road. Historically a resort complex, the area now contains 21 tracts, totaling 5.99 acres. This community consists of summer cabins and people reside there primarily in the summer. There are 24 cabins and approximately 41 smaller structures on lots. The community has limited amenities, in an area that is completely surrounded by wilderness. There are no schools or businesses in Aspen Valley. Utilities are primitive, consisting of individual generators, wells, and pit toilets.

Services in Yosemite National Park and the El Portal Administrative Site

Fire Protection.  The National Park Service has exclusive jurisdiction and sole responsibility for fire protection within Yosemite National Park. The Mariposa County Fire Department may provide assistance during the most serious fires within the park. The National Park Service provides equipment and training, and fire response comes from employee and volunteer members in the Valley, Foresta, and Wawona. In El Portal, the federal land is proprietary interest land, and the National Park Service cooperates with the county to provide area fire protection services. Through a cooperative agreement, the National Park Service provides first response assistance to any fire in the area. The county also operates a volunteer fire protection squad and provides firefighting equipment at El Portal.

Emergency Medical Services.  The National Park Service has a concession contract with Doctors Medical Center to provide medical services within the park. A medical clinic is staffed in Yosemite Valley to provide basic medical attention for minor medical conditions, and initial first aid for incidents within the park. For more serious medical conditions, patients are sent to Mariposa or elsewhere for treatment. Rangers, emergency response volunteers, and the Yosemite Medical Clinic generally provide the first response to medical incidents within Yosemite National Park and the El Portal area (including nonfederal lands). However, at this time, the county is primarily responsible for providing ambulance services. Mariposa County pays the National Park Service $22,000 a year for training to provide medical first responses to the local area outside the park.

Road Maintenance.  The National Park Service is responsible for all roadways exclusively on federal property, including most of the access roads within El Portal. The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) is responsible for the maintenance of Highway 140. Mariposa County is responsible for maintaining paved roads within Section 35 in Wawona. In Foresta, roads are maintained by both the county and National Park Service. The National Park Service retains responsibility for the first mile of paved road leading off of Big Oak Flat Road and for all dirt roads in the community. The county maintains the paved Foresta Road beyond this one-mile mark though Foresta and the dirt continuation of this road down to El Portal. Besides Foresta Road (noted above), the only roadway in the El Portal area under county jurisdiction is the section of Foresta Road from Clark Community Hall east to the boundary of the El Portal Administrative Site.

Environmental Justice

Demographics

The demographic mix of people living in the five counties surrounding Yosemite National Park is similar to that of the state as a whole except numbers of African-American and Asian-American